Recall an experience with a transformational leader.
· What transformational leadership qualities did the person possess?
· How did these qualities impact the leader’s interactions with others?
· Share your response in a minimum of 175 words.
Saturday, March 20, 2021
Consider a swimsuit vendor who sells swimsuits at a unit price of $100
(Inventory Management): Consider a swimsuit vendor who sells swimsuits at a unit price of $100 during the summer selling season. The vendor has one ordering opportunity and he orders the swimsuits from the supplier at a unit cost of $30 before the selling season. Unsold swimsuits can be returned to the supplier after summer, with a salvage value of $10 each. The swimsuit vendor expects that the total demand during the summer selling season follows a uniform distribution between 3000 to 6000 units. In this case, what is the unit overage cost? What is the unit underage cost? What is the vendor’s optimal order quantity (round your answers to the nearest integer)?
Food Security
Questions from Chapter 4
1) Define Food Security. Traditionally, what have the ethics discussions around food been?
2) In discussing Food Security, how did Amartya Sen use the concept of entitlement?
3) What are some of the ways industrialized countries, like the United States, care for its own people when households face economic challenges, and cannot earn enough money for food?
4) In developing countries, food aid is often delivered from developed countries, and distributed in poor communities. How does this disrupt the activities of local farmers?
5) Use this example to answer the following questions:
Consider asmall city of 1000 households with high unemployment. It was announced that a company was coming to build a factory that would provide jobs for about 700 people, yet the development would cause 100 families to lose their jobs.
a. Explain the pros of the situation.
b. What are the ethical questions that may be raised here? Explain.
c. How would utilitarian thinkers feel about this situation?
d. What may be a solution here? IF you can, explain how Kant might respond.
6) In the United States many small farmers have sold their farms and moved to urban areas. This has resulted in much larger, highly efficient farms. What are the pros and cons to this situation, and how would utilitarians justify this?
7) Define farmer agency. How does it apply in regards to the situations in 5 and 6.
Nature vs. Nurture
Nature vs. Nurture Position Paper STEP ONE: The authors of the textbook introduce the debate between the role of nature (i.e., the influence of genetics and the presence of certain innate qualities) and nurture (i.e., the importance of experience on knowledge acquisition). In your position paper, address is you feel nature or nurture more strongly influences our preferences, personality makeup, intelligence, etc. Provide an example from your life experience(s) to support your assertion. STEP TWO: After you decide, review the twin research by Thomas Bouchard of the University of Minnesota. Studies of twins reared apart provide a fascinating introduction to the complex interplay between nature and nurture. He studied identical twins separated at or shortly after birth and then reared apart, often with no knowledge that their twin even existed. Because the twins were all identical twins, they share the same genetics, meaning that any differences in the behaviors under investigation are more attributable to environment (nurture) rather than genetics (nature). Bouchard located these separated twins as adults, and found remarkable similarities in certain areas, particularly with regard to personality and personal preferences. For a detailed description of the “Jim twins” and their amazing similarities, visit the Minnesota Center for Twin and Family Research at https://mctfr.psych.umn.edu/research/UM%20research.html. Also, it is strongly recommended that you watch Three Identical Strangers (available on Hulu with subscription and other streaming services as a rental). STEP THREE: In your position paper, address how the findings fit with the nature versus nurture controversy. Have your opinions shifted? Your Paper will be 1 ½ - 2 pages, 12 pt. font, with 1 inch margins. APA format is expected. As such, citations and corresponding references should be included.
Creating a Single-System (Subject) Design Study
Assignment: Creating a Single-System (Subject) Design Study
The steps at the heart of single-system (subject) research are part of the everyday practice of social work. Each day social workers implement interventions to meet clients’ needs and monitor results. However, conducting proper single-system (subject) research entails far more than these simple day-to-day practices. Proper single-system research requires a high degree of knowledge and commitment. Social workers must fully understand the purpose of single-system (subject) research and the variations of single-system (subject) design. They must develop a hypothesis based upon research and select the right design for testing it. They must ensure the reliability and validity of the data to be collected and know how to properly analyze and evaluate that data. This assignment asks you to rise to the challenge of creating a proposal for a single-subject research study.
To prepare for this Assignment, imagine that you are the social worker assigned to work with Paula Cortez (see the case study, “Social Work Research: Single Subject” in this week’s resources). After an initial assessment of her social, medical, and psychiatric problems, you develop a plan for intervention. You also develop a plan to monitor progress in your work with her using measures that can be evaluated in a single-system research design. As a scholar practitioner, you rely on research to help plan your intervention and your evaluation plan.
Complete the Cortez Family interactive media in this week’s resources. Conduct a literature search related to the chronic issues related to HIV/AIDS and bipolar mental disorder. Search for additional research related to assessing outcomes and theoretical frameworks appropriate for this client. For example, your search could include terms such as motivational interviewing and outcomes and goal-oriented practice and outcomes. You might also look at the NREPP database identified in Week 1, to search for interventions related to mental health and physical health.
By Day 7
Submit a 5- to 7-page proposal/research plan for single-system (subject) evaluation for your work with Paula Cortez. Identify the problems that you will target and the outcomes you will measure, select an appropriate intervention or interventions (including length of time), and identify an appropriate evaluation plan.
Include a description of:
The problem(s) that are the focus of treatment
The intervention approach, including length of time, so that it can be replicated
A summary of the literature that you reviewed that led you to select this intervention approach
The purpose for conducting a single-system (subject) research evaluation
The measures for evaluating the outcomes and observing change including:
Evidence from your literature search about the nature of the measures
The validity and reliability of the measures
How baseline measures will be obtained
How often follow-up measures will be administered
The criteria that you would use to determine whether the intervention is effective
How the periodic measurements could assist you in your ongoing work with Paula
Benjamin Franklin's autobiography Part 1 and Part 2
Benjamin Franklin's autobiography Part 1 and Part 2
Journal Instructions and Topic Choices Three journals are required during the semester. Journals must be written on current readings. Journals are due on Thursdays. Only one journal can be written per week. Journals need to written in MLA format. They should be AT LEAST 15 sentences and include a thesis that introduces the work, the author, and the journal topic. Journals are not summaries. If you choose to write on poetry, you will need to include at least THREE poems by the same author. Choose ONE of the following to address in your journal. 1. Apply 2 of the steps of characterization to a major or minor character in the work by discussing how the technique reveals something about his society. ▪ What a character says ▪ What a character does ▪ What a character looks like ▪ What others say about him ▪ What the author says about him 2. Apply 2 of the methods of evaluating literature to the work. ▪ Historical provenance ▪ Details of the lifestyle of the period ▪ Psychological accuracy ▪ Position in the history of literature ▪ Insight into the author’s perspective 3. Define the genre to which the work belongs and apply 2 parts to specific examples. 4. No scene of violence exists for its own sake. Choose a violent scene and discuss its relevance to 2 different characters, not how it relates to the plot. 5. List 2 themes of the work and for each briefly discuss how each is revealed through character, incident or symbol. . 6. Xerox and paste a significant passage onto the journal and explain it in terms of its significance to the work. 7. Choose 2 symbols in the work and discuss their significance to a specific character(s), or choose Journal Instructions and Topic Choices one symbol and discuss 2 different ways in which it is employed. 8. Discuss how tone (the author’s voice) combined with the atmosphere (setting + plot) equal mood (reader’s feeling). 9. A touchstone was a piece of jasper used to determine the quality of gold; the word means a test of genuineness. Choose one of the following touchstone lines (or one of your own appropriate choosing) and apply it to a theme in the work. ▪ All the world’s a stage and the men and women merely players ▪ Fools rush in where angels fear to tread. ▪ When the going gets tough the tough get going. ▪ It was the best of times; it was the worst of times. ▪ Behind every great man is a great woman. ▪ Woman is man’s damnation. ▪ Absolute power corrupts absolutely. 10. Choose a touchstone line from the work and apply it to a character(s) in the work. 11. Discuss how a major or minor character violates or adheres to the conventions of his society and the result. 12. Discuss the effect of 2 mythological allusions in the work. 13. Discuss 2 of the characteristics of the period and how they are evident in the work. 14. (Man vs. Man; Man vs. Himself; Man vs. Nature; Man vs. Society)
American Literature - The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano
American Literature - The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano
Journal Instructions and Topic Choices Three journals are required during the semester. Journals must be written on current readings. Journals are due on Thursdays. Only one journal can be written per week. Journals need to written in MLA format. They should be AT LEAST 15 sentences and include a thesis that introduces the work, the author, and the journal topic. Journals are not summaries. If you choose to write on poetry, you will need to include at least THREE poems by the same author. Choose ONE of the following to address in your journal. 1. Apply 2 of the steps of characterization to a major or minor character in the work by discussing how the technique reveals something about his society. ▪ What a character says ▪ What a character does ▪ What a character looks like ▪ What others say about him ▪ What the author says about him 2. Apply 2 of the methods of evaluating literature to the work. ▪ Historical provenance ▪ Details of the lifestyle of the period ▪ Psychological accuracy ▪ Position in the history of literature ▪ Insight into the author’s perspective 3. Define the genre to which the work belongs and apply 2 parts to specific examples. 4. No scene of violence exists for its own sake. Choose a violent scene and discuss its relevance to 2 different characters, not how it relates to the plot. 5. List 2 themes of the work and for each briefly discuss how each is revealed through character, incident or symbol. . 6. Xerox and paste a significant passage onto the journal and explain it in terms of its significance to the work. 7. Choose 2 symbols in the work and discuss their significance to a specific character(s), or choose Journal Instructions and Topic Choices one symbol and discuss 2 different ways in which it is employed. 8. Discuss how tone (the author’s voice) combined with the atmosphere (setting + plot) equal mood (reader’s feeling). 9. A touchstone was a piece of jasper used to determine the quality of gold; the word means a test of genuineness. Choose one of the following touchstone lines (or one of your own appropriate choosing) and apply it to a theme in the work. ▪ All the world’s a stage and the men and women merely players ▪ Fools rush in where angels fear to tread. ▪ When the going gets tough the tough get going. ▪ It was the best of times; it was the worst of times. ▪ Behind every great man is a great woman. ▪ Woman is man’s damnation. ▪ Absolute power corrupts absolutely. 10. Choose a touchstone line from the work and apply it to a character(s) in the work. 11. Discuss how a major or minor character violates or adheres to the conventions of his society and the result. 12. Discuss the effect of 2 mythological allusions in the work. 13. Discuss 2 of the characteristics of the period and how they are evident in the work. 14. (Man vs. Man; Man vs. Himself; Man vs. Nature; Man vs. Society)
Scholar Practitioner Project Assignment: Models of Addiction and Treatment
Assignment: Scholar Practitioner Project Assignment: Models of Addiction and Treatment
For this Assignment, you will explore the four models most commonly used in the treatment of addiction. You will select the most appropriate model to use and apply in your SPP. As a helping professional, it will be important for you to be familiar with these four models and prepared to work within their frameworks.
You will submit your selected models of addiction and treatment for your Scholar Practitioner Project (SPP). Refer to the "Instructions for Scholar Practitioner Project (SPP) Case Study" document.
Assignment:
In a 2- to 4-page APA-formatted paper:
Submit the models of addiction and treatment that you selected for your Scholar Practitioner Project (SPP) Case Study as it applies to the case of Marge. Include the following information:
Selected model of addiction
Potential strengths and limitations of this model of addiction
Selected model of treatment
Potential strengths and limitations of this model of treatment
Provide a rationale for each of your selections
Provide a summary of any potential dilemmas you might encounter working with the model selected
Evaluation Plan Assignment
Evaluation Plan Assignment
For this assignment, you will develop an Evaluation Plan that identifies how you will assess the strategy outlined in your Theory of Change/Logic Model. You will not actually conduct an evaluation for this assignment, because (for most of you) your ventures are still incubating. However, having a plan in place that outlines how you intend to measure your success or flag areas for improvement is important information for investors.
Your Evaluation Plan will include:
1. The overall purpose, rationale and focus of the evaluation - The WHY of the Evaluation Plan. This section should be answered in a page or less. You can answer these three parts in any order that suits you, as long as you address all three. – 7 points
a) The purpose
Articulate what insight(s) you seek to gain on the: state of affairs? the value, merit, worth, significance of initiatives, processes, strategies, plan, and/or systems? the quality of a program, product, person, policy, proposal, and/or new knowledge?
What type(s) of evaluation(s) will you conduct as provided by Russ-Eft & Preskill (2007)? In other words, is your aim developmental? Formative? Summative? For monitoring and audit? Outcome? Impact? Performance measurement? A combination of any of these? Other? Chances are you will be conducting at least two types, with the common two being formative and summative.
Will the data you intend to collect tell the full story of the implementation of your Theory of Change, and what change occurred as a result? Or are intending to capture a partial story? Have you included metrics for the target population, program implementation, and program outcomes? (learningforaction.com)
b) The rationale
Ask yourself these questions when developing this area and answer the one(s) that are pertinent to your venture.
● What decisions, if any, are the evaluation findings expected to influence? For example, will the data you intend to collect be useful for making decisions that can improve performance or outcomes?
● What data and findings are needed to support decision making?
● When will decisions be made? When must the evaluation findings be presented to be timely and influential?
● What is at stake in the decisions?
● How much influence do you expect the evaluation to have, realistically?
● To what extent has the outcome of the decision already been determined?
c) The focus
Describe the specific social part(s) of your venture’s logic model that you believe would be most pertinent in gaining the insight you desire, and which form the basis of this evaluation plan.
Hint: identify at least one outcome and its component parts (and, if possible, select an impact indicator), ie. the threading you did in your Logic Model.
2. The components of the Plan: the WHAT and HOW specifics of your Evaluation Plan, followed by the WHERE and WHEN. This section will likely take a couple pages to answer; you might want to answer this in the form of a table or grid. For this section, we will be following the Learning in Action framework. – 9 points
https://learningforaction.com/developing-a-plan. *
a. Define the areas of inquiry in the form of learning questions. Create 3-5 priority questions that will describe the information you need to collect and are withing the scope of your Theory of Change. (In other words, don’t introduce something brand new that isn’t in your Logic Model.)
b. Identify your metrics (measures for process / indicators for outcomes) – the data elements you seek to collect. As previously described, there are two types of metrics: process and outcome. Process metrics often focus on the target population and often center on inputs and outputs. Outcome metrics center on the changes you aim to accomplish in individuals, systems or institutions as a result of your program. An extension of outcome metrics is capturing indicators of impact.
c. Choose the data collection methods. How will you collect the data? Will you use one format? Several to triangulate the data? Different methods for different purposes?
Be specific with the format and methodology, e.g. your approach(es) as well as choice(s) between qualitative or quantitative or mixed methods.
Will the data collection methods get you the information you need. For example, surveys tell you about the magnitude of change, but are less useful for understanding how and why the change came about. (learningforaction)
d. Specify data sources, e.g. primary or secondary details
e. Specify the timing and frequency of data collection.
3. Communicating the results: the WHO (and for whom) you will provide results of your findings. First, you would need to analyze and interpret the data. – 2 points
a. Identify the key stakeholders / audience interested in your data
b. Articulate when and where you would expect to provide information, e.g. in what format(s)
4. Additional considerations. – 2 point
Address at least one of the issues below.
a. Give an example of how you will ensure validity / reliability of your tools and results
b. Give an example of how you will ensure cultural humility and ethics
c. Give an example of how will you ensure equity - specifically mitigating inherent bias - in the design of the specific assessments and tools
You may choose to write out this assignment in narrative form or present it in power point format.
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* Please use the Measurement Plan Worksheet format and resources from Learning for Action.
* You can also see the Evaluation Plan in the ACLAC Strategic Plan as an example.
* You can also use as a reference Social Return on Investments Comprehensive Guide.
The Health Workforce
The Health Workforce
This discussion highlights on the health workforce as central to the health care system, and any changes in its deployment and utilization will have significant effects on health care quality and costs. The ACA and rising concerns about the efficiency of health care delivery are bringing renewed attention to on the current makeup of the health care workforce, the challenges posed by shortages in certain professions, and how these shortages are being addressed.
Grading Rubric for Healthcare Workforce
Most healthcare in the United States is delivered in traditional setting such as hospitals, physician organizations, and long-term care organizations. As access is becoming more readily available, the demand for care is increasing as physician shortages is also increasing.
PLEASE READ AND ANSWER ALL THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS LISTED BELOW!!!! APA Format, English punctuation, and spelling. NO plagiarism, proof of Turnitin document.
1. With the increase in number of non-physician providers, discuss how it may affect cost, quality, and access to care in the U.S. healthcare system?
2. Discuss on the possibility of changes to scope of practice regulations for Advanced Practice RNs and how it could help to abate health worker shortages?
3. Why is primary care so important?
Personal philosophy of public health education
Why does creating a personal philosophy of public health education matter? Your personal philosophy influences the decisions you make and actions you take as a public health educator. And, as expressed in the quote above, you are more likely to take responsibility for the choices you make as a public health educator by clearly articulating your beliefs and perspectives. Developing a personal philosophy has additional professional benefits. For instance, employers in an interview may ask you to state your personal philosophy of public health education. Knowing your personal philosophy not only prepares you to respond, it also allows the employers to determine whether you fit within their organization’s culture.
To prepare for this Assignment:
Review the process for developing a philosophy of public health education, as well as the examples of public health education philosophies, provided in Chapter 3 of the Cottrell, Girvan, and McKenzie course text.
Begin to draft your own personal philosophy of public health education practice and the approaches you will use in your work.
Review the “Predominant Health Education/Promotion Philosophies” section of Chapter 3 and be prepared to compare your philosophy with these philosophies. Use the questions at the end of the “Developing a Philosophy” section to guide your comparison.
To complete this Assignment, write a 2- to 3-page paper that includes the following:
Your personal philosophy of public health education (1–2 pages), which should be based on one of the five predominant philosophies of public health education
A comparison of your philosophy to one or more of the five predominant philosophies of public health education
Note: Your personal philosophy is not about “telling your story.” Rather, it involves thinking about your own practice of health education and how you will apply theories in the field.
Your written assignments must follow APA guidelines. Be sure to support your work with specific citations from this week’s Learning Resources and additional scholarly sources as appropriate.
Chapter 3 Philosophical Foundations Chapter Objectives After reading this chapter and answering the questions at the end, you should be able to: Define the terms philosophy, wellness, holistic, and symmetry, and identify common elements between them. Discuss the importance of developing a personal philosophy about life. Compare and contrast the advantages and disadvantages of having similar life and occupational philosophies. Formulate a statement that describes your personal philosophy of life and identify the influences that account for your philosophy. Identify and explain the differences between the following health education/promotion philosophies: behavior change philosophy cognitive-based philosophy decision-making philosophy freeing or functioning philosophy social change philosophy eclectic philosophy Explain how a health education specialist might use each of the six health education/promotion philosophies listed above to address a situation in a scenario. Create and defend your own philosophy of health education/promotion. Kristy has been exploring health-related careers and is interested in pursuing a major in health education/promotion. Her interest has been partially piqued by the fact that her parents’ lives improved when they began to lower their cholesterol and increase their exercise by incorporating information and strategies presented to them by a health education specialist employed by their physician. The health education specialist worked with Kristy’s parents on a regular basis for nearly six months, and they gave rave reviews on that specialist’s methodologies. As a result, her parents were able to reduce or eliminate several of the medications they had been taking. Kristy also had to admit that the entire family’s health had benefited from her parents’ “new” lifestyle. In thinking about a career as a health education specialist, Kristy formulated several questions. Her inquiry included the philosophies, styles, and methods of practice held or used by health education specialists. Others were related to the profession as a whole and how someone decides whether becoming a health education specialist is a good match for her or his philosophy of life. This chapter addresses some of the same questions that Kristy contemplated in relation to the practice of health education/promotion and possibly becoming a health education specialist. To that end, we will explore questions such as What is a philosophy? Why does a person need a philosophy? What are some of the philosophies or philosophical principles associated with the notion of health? What philosophical viewpoints related to health education/promotion are held by some of the past and current leading health education specialists? How is a philosophy developed? What are the predominant philosophies used in the practice of health education/promotion today? How will adopting any of the health education/promotion philosophies impact the way health education specialists practice in their chosen setting? The purpose of discussing the development of a health education/promotion philosophy is not to provide a treatise on “the nature of the world,” so to speak, but to emphasize the importance of a guiding philosophy to the practice of any profession. Smith (2010) notes, “When a health educator identifies and organizes concepts deemed as valuable in relation to health outcomes, he or she can begin to form a philosophical framework for functioning comfortably and effectively” (p. 51). Gambesia (2013) adds, “Our philosophy of public health education, therefore, will strongly influence our approach as to what we do as health education specialists” (p. 11). The term philosophy may seem to some to describe an almost ethereal, esoteric academic exercise. In actuality, however, a well-considered philosophy provides the underpinnings that serve to bridge theory and practice. Although various general types of philosophies of health education/promotion are covered later in the chapter, the following example might help you begin to see the importance of how a health education specialist’s philosophy helps in determining his or her practice approach in working with individuals and communities. Consider the case of Julieta, a 30-year-old mother of two, who smokes, does not exercise regularly, eats many of her meals at fast-food restaurants, and has a family history of heart disease. Julieta is enrolled in a required personal health course at a local university. She is going back to school to become a bilingual elementary school teacher. Because a health risk appraisal is a required part of the class, she has made an appointment to visit Javier, one of the health education specialists in the health promotion center on campus. Javier has adopted the philosophy of behavior change. As a proponent of this approach, he believes that all people are capable of changing their health behavior if they can be shown the steps to success. Initially, he would use a behavior change contract method to get Julieta to try to eliminate one or two of her negative health behaviors. As a part of this process, some preliminary analysis would be done in an attempt to identify the triggers that cause her to engage in negative health behaviors. He would help her identify short-term and long-term goals. Together they would establish specific and measurable objectives to reach those goals, and strategies to reach the objectives. He would also try to ensure that she receives some appropriate reward for every objective and goal she accomplishes. During the visit, Javier also shares with Julieta that there are other health education specialists at the center who employ different philosophies from his and that she might benefit from also visiting one of them. The results of Julieta’s visits to the other health education specialists are covered later in this chapter.
What Is a Philosophy? The word philosophy comes from Greek and literally means “the love of wisdom” or “the love of learning.” The term philosophy in this chapter means a statement summarizing the attitudes, principles, beliefs, values, and concepts held by an individual or a group. In an academic setting, a philosopher studies the topics of ethics, logic, politics, metaphysics, theology, or aesthetics. It is certainly not imperative that a person be an academic philosopher to have a philosophy. All of us have convictions, ideas, values, experiences, and attitudes about one or more of the philosophy topics listed above as they apply to life. These are the building blocks (sometimes known as principles) that make up any philosophy. A person who has generated his or her personal philosophy of how life operates for him or her often is inquisitive about what facts or factors help explain an issue so that the true meaning can help inform both opinion and approach to addressing the issue. Alternative explanations behind issues are explored. Without a philosophy, a person may well fall into the trap of thinking that opinion is the same as fact. When opinion is equated with fact (reality), it becomes much more difficult for a person, regardless of occupation, to be open to new ideas or concepts or other ways of looking at the world (see Figure 3.1). Gambescia (2013) states, “Health education specialists should promote diverse ideas and encourage critical thinking. We should seek a high level of tolerance . . .” (p. 13). You most likely have already developed certain philosophical viewpoints or notions about what is real and true in the world as you know it. The manner in which you consistently act toward other people often reflects your philosophy concerning the importance of people in general. That you are studying to become a health education specialist says something about your philosophical leanings in terms of a career. For example, the profession of health education/promotion is considered a helping profession. Gambescia (2007) states that health education “is an enabling good that helps individuals and communities flourish” (p. 722). Those who work in the profession should value helping others. In today’s society there are many examples of the use of a philosophical position. Corporations, for example, create slogans espousing their purported philosophy. Of course, more than a few of them are also trying to sell a product or service at the same time. Many of us recognize certain companies by phrases such as “Just Do It” (Nike), or “Think Different” (Apple). The use of caring slogans and catchy phrases is meant to convey to the public that the company is in business solely because it is interested in the welfare of people everywhere and is responsive to their needs. If the company’s actions match the slogan, the public is more likely to perceive the slogan as a true representation of the corporate philosophy. Figure 3.1 Young Man Contemplating the Tree of Life: What Will It Hold for Me? Additionally, many not-for-profit and for-profit agencies and companies often have mission statements. A mission statement is meant to convey a philosophy and direction that form a framework for all actions taken by that organization. For example, the mission statement for the Central District Health Department in Boise, Idaho, is “Healthy People in Healthy Communities.” After reading this statement there is little doubt that the overriding philosophy in this department is one of promoting prevention for both individuals and communities. For individuals who have a philosophy that emphasizes prevention and early intervention, this is likely to be a place where they might find employment that is personally rewarding and professionally fulfilling. Just as often, insight into a person’s philosophy can be gained by hearing, reading, or analyzing that person’s quotes or sayings. For example, the following quote from actor Michael J. Fox (2010) embodies his philosophy of life in the face of an incurable disease: “Parkinson’s demanded of me that I be a better man, a better husband, father, and citizen. I often refer to it as a gift. With a nod to those who find this hard to believe, especially my fellow patients who are facing great difficulties, I add this qualifier—it’s the gift that keeps on taking . . . but it’s a gift” (p. 89). As you will see later and as can be noted from Fox’s statement, a philosophy is rarely stagnant, but rather continuous because it is formulated by considering values, beliefs, experiences, and consequences of actions. Composing a philosophy statement allows a person to reflect on what is important to him or her when viewing the world in its many manifestations. The thoughts stated previously are well summarized by Loren Bensley (1993), one of the most influential health education specialists of the latter half of the 20th century: Philosophy can be defined as a state of mind based on your values and beliefs. This in turn is based on a variety of factors which include culture, religion, education, morals, environment, experiences, and family. It is also determined by people who have influenced you, how you feel about yourself and others, your spirit, your optimism or pessimism, your independence and your family. It is a synthesis of all learning that makes you who you are and what you believe. In other words, a philosophy reflects your values and beliefs which determine your mission and purpose for being, or basic theory, or viewpoint based on logical reasoning. (p. 2) Please note that a philosophy does not have to be abstract. Pondering the reason for being gives people a chance to integrate their past, present, and future into a coherent whole that guides them through life.
Why Does One Need a Philosophy?
The answer to the question “Why does one need a philosophy?” is both simple and complex. Each of us already has a view of the world and what is true for us. This image helps shape the way we experience our surroundings and act toward others in our environment. In other words, a person’s philosophy helps form the basis of reality for her or him.
Of course, some philosophical change is probably inevitable. New experiences, new insights, and new learnings create the possibility that some of the tenets composing the philosophy might need retooling. This is a normal part of growth. Most people’s philosophical views are altered somewhat as they study, grow older, and experience the world in different ways. Gambescia (2013) concurs when he writes, “experienced health education specialists should seriously think about updating their philosophy statement as it is tangible evidence of one’s growth in the field of public health” (p. 110).
Usually a person’s philosophy (e.g., determining how to treat others, what actions are right or wrong, and what is important in life) needs to be synchronous in all aspects of life. This means that a person’s philosophical viewpoint holds at home, at school, in the workplace, and at play. If incongruence develops between a person’s philosophy and the philosophy of the leaders in the workplace, problems can occur.
As an example, consider the career of a public health education specialist working in HIV/AIDS prevention education who is employed by a state department of education. Assume that this individual has a philosophical view that all human life is sacred and education is the best source of prevention. Also assume that the person’s work both on and off the job reflects consistency and a commitment to those ideals. In other words, the person’s actions are synchronous with the aforementioned philosophy. As long as the administration in the state department of education and family and friends remain supportive of this health education specialist’s role and philosophy, chances are that this person will do well. If, however, the state department leadership changes and the new superintendent is opposed to the idea that individuals infected with HIV are worth saving (because they chose their behaviors) or refuses to allow condoms to be mentioned as an age-appropriate secondary source of prevention, the specialist may have a difficult time remaining in that environment. The reason for this statement is that this educator is now not allowed to act according to his or her beliefs, ideals, and knowledge. There is a disharmony between the philosophical stance and the ability to act in concert with that stance.
Certainly, there are exceptions to this rule. Health education specialists might hold philosophies on how they personally live, yet they might have to educate those who have made choices that are opposed to their belief system. This situation begins to cross the bounds of a general philosophy and get into ethics (right behavior—see Chapter 5). Although a possible moral-philosophical conflict seems apparent in this situation, health education specialists need to remember that their primary concern is to protect and enhance the health of those they serve. The health of any one of us affects the health of all of us in some manner (legally, monetarily, physically, or emotionally). At the very least, the health education specialist should refer this situation to another trained individual who can fulfill the obligation to the public.
The late U.S. Surgeon General C. Everett Koop was confronted with the same dilemma when he was in office during the advent of the AIDS epidemic, 1981–1989. Although he was a strong conservative Christian leader and against the use of drugs and premarital sex, he championed the cause of HIV/AIDS education by stressing that the epidemic was a health problem that required a health-based prevention message. Through the power of his office, he insisted that HIV/AIDS prevention education include the merits of abstinence, the dissemination of needles to inner-city addicts, and the increased availability of condoms to individuals who choose to be sexually active or have multiple sexual partners (see Figure 3.2).
A further example that illustrates the impact of a philosophy on the practice of a profession comes from an article by Governali, Hodges, and Videto (2005) in which they state, “philosophical thought is central to the delivery of health education. For a profession to stay vital and relevant, it is important to assess its activities, regularly evaluate its goals, and assess its philosophical direction” (p. 211). The emphasis the authors place on the influence of activities and goals related to philosophy is a direct reflection of their personal and professional philosophical foundation formed over the years. A well-reasoned philosophy often plays an important role in the choice of a career path.
Figure 3.2
The current U.S. Surgeon General, Vivek H. Murthy, is a strong supporter of the value of health education and promotion in creating a more prevention-focused approach to health.
A study identifying factors that influence career choices further validates that statement. Tamayose, Farzin, Schmieder-Ramirez, and Rice (2004) surveyed public health students enrolled at a west coast university to determine what major influences led them to pursue careers in public health. Researchers found that the top two items mentioned by the students were “enjoyment of the profession/commitment to health improvement” and “provide a health/community service to others.” Both of these statements reflect a common philosophical thread that permeates the thinking of a majority of individuals currently practicing in the field of health education/promotion with whom we have come in contact.
In summary, the formation of a philosophy is one of the key determining factors behind the choice of an occupation, a spouse, a religious conviction, a political persuasion, and friends. A firm philosophical foundation serves as a beacon that lights the way and provides guidance for many of the major decisions in life.
Principles and Philosophies Associated with Health
In Chapter 1, the meaning of the term health was discussed. Recall that, although the term health is elusive to define, nearly all definitions include the idea of a multidimensional construct that most people value, particularly when health deteriorates. Some see health as an end to itself; others see health as being important in large part because its presence enables the freedom to act as one desires without major physical or mental impediments. Over the past 30 to 50 years, educators have identified several philosophies or philosophical principles that tend to be associated with the establishment and maintenance of health. These philosophies provide a set of guiding principles that help create a framework to better understand the depth of the term health.
Rash (1985) mentions that, although health is often not an end in itself, good health does bring a richness and enjoyment to life that will make service to others more possible. He feels that those who seek to enhance the health of others through education should espouse a philosophy of symmetry; that is, health has physical, emotional, spiritual, and social components, and each is just as important as the others. Health education specialists should seek to motivate their students or clients toward symmetry (balance) among these components.
Oberteufer (1953) rejected the notions of a dualistic (human = mind + body) or a triune (human = mind + body + spirit) nature for humanity. Instead, he embraced the ideal of a ¬holistic philosophy of health when he stated, “The mind and body disappear as recognizable realities and in their stead comes the acknowledgment of a whole being . . . man is essentially a unified integrated organism” (p. 105). Thomas (1984) is convinced that the holistic view of health produces health professionals who are more passionate about creating a society in which the promotion of good health is seen as a positive goal.
Greenberg (1992), Donatelle (2011), Edlin and Golanty (2004), and Hales (2004), among others, have elevated the construct of wellness to the level of a philosophy. Wellness, always a positive quality (as opposed to illness being always a negative), is visualized as the integration of the spiritual, intellectual, physical, emotional, environmental, and social dimensions of health to form a whole “healthy person.” Those who subscribe to this philosophy believe that all people can achieve some measure of wellness, no matter what limitations they have, and that achieving optimal health is an appropriate journey for everyone. The optimum state of wellness occurs when people have developed all six of the dimensions of health to the maximum of their ability (see Figure 3.3).
Figure 3.3
The Overlapping Dimensions of Wellness. Optimum health includes each of these components.
To be sure, there are those who differ in their philosophical view of health being composed of all the dimensions of wellness. For example, Balog (2005) believes that health must by nature be seen solely as a physical state because “health must reside in the person” (p. 269), and it is not possible for a person to be truly healthy if the systems of the body are not functioning optimally in the way they were intended to operate. He argues that any other view of health is really not objective but introduces subjective views of what others value (the good life). In Balog’s view, it is important for health education specialists to distinguish that which affects health from that which is health. In other words, he cautions against confusing “good life” with “good health.”
The philosophies previously mentioned are not meant to be all inclusive. The purpose for discussing them is to help provide a framework to further assist the reader in developing a philosophy about health and, ultimately, health education/promotion.
Leading Philosophical Viewpoints
Over the past 25 years, several publications and numerous articles have focused on recounting the philosophical positions of past and present leading health education specialists. To assist you in formulating your own health education/promotion philosophy, we present here a small sample of the philosophies expressed in these publications. As previously mentioned, one way a philosophical approach is developed is through the influence of role models, or mentors. The viewpoints that follow may help stimulate your thoughts and provide guidance as you begin developing your own health education philosophy and as you consider whether a career in health education/promotion is for you.
BECKY SMITH (2010)
Studying the definitions of health from the perspectives of scholars such as Dubos, Fromm, Maslow, Montagu, Tillich, and Tournier.
. . . helped me develop a personal understanding of how individuals express health and how the potential for health can manifest despite severe limitations in one or more dimension(s). . . . when internal and external elements that facilitate the development of human potential are available, individuals are more likely to experience optimal health. . . . I prefer to look for that expression of health as a starting point for professional interaction, education, and enhancement of health rather than focus on existing debilitation. (p. 52)
JOHN ALLEGRANTE (2006)
I have always believed that the goal of health education is to promote, maintain, and improve individual and community health through the educational process. I believe that there are fundamental conceptual hallmarks and a social agenda that differentiate the practice of health education and that of medicine in achieving this goal. These hallmarks include the use of consensus strategies to identify health needs and problems, voluntary participation as an ethical requirement, and an obligation to foster social and political change. I also believe that our perspective and methodologies require that we enter into a social contract with people that engages them as partners, not merely as patients. (p. 306)
MARIAN HAMBURG (1993)
Eta Sigma Gamma has given me the chance to expound on a few of my beliefs about health education.
1. You can’t plan everything. Unexpected opportunities appear and it is important to be ready to take advantage of them. (p. 68)
2. I believe in mentorship. Its power incorporated into health education programming has enormous strength for influencing positive health behaviors. (p. 70)
3. I believe that effective health education programming requires appropriate inter-sectoral cooperation, and that health educators, regardless of the source of their professional preparation, must be its facilitators. School-community can be one world. (p. 71)
4. I believe that we need to put more of our resources into joint efforts and coalition building. Much of health education’s future as a profession depends upon the support that health educators, regardless of their specialized training, provide for the maintenance and expansion of certification. (p. 73)
5. It is not surprising to me that the concept of networking has become an important basis for health education practice. We bring together people with common problems to seek solutions through the sharing of feelings and information. (p. 73)
JOHN SEFFRIN (1993)
I believe the most fundamental outcome of health education is the enabling of individuals to achieve a level of personal freedom not very likely to be obtained otherwise. Freedom means being able to avoid any unnecessary encumbrance on one’s ability to make an enlightened choice (p. 110). . . . We need to be resourceful and open to change. In doing so, however, we need to change in ways that do not violate certain basic principles:
1. appreciation for each individual’s uniqueness;
2. respect for ethnic and cultural diversity;
3. protection for individual and group autonomy;
4. promotion and preservation of free choice; and
5. intervention strategies based on good science. (p. 114)
Philosophies are as individual as the people themselves, yet some common themes (development of individual potential, learning experiences that help in decision making, free choice, and enhancement of individual uniqueness) seem to emerge and hold true regardless of the health education specialist. Let us now examine how these philosophies are actually applied in the practice of health education/promotion.
Developing a Philosophy
Now that it is clear that a philosophy is not some abstraction used only by individuals such as the Dalai Lama or Gandhi, let us explore the ways in which a philosophy is formed. In previous sections, it was noted that most practicing professionals and many organizations have developed certain philosophical stances that serve as their road map and guide for living and working in the world. What provides the basis for forming a philosophy?
Suppose you are searching through the Web sites of various health education/promotion programs, trying to determine which one might be best for you. In your search, you come across the Web site for the community health education program at the University of ¬Wisconsin at La Crosse (see the Weblinks section at the end of the chapter for URL references). One of the prominent features of the site is a statement of the mission of this program.
The mission of the BS-PH CHE (Bachelor of Science—Public Health, Community Health Education) program at the University of Wisconsin-La Crosse (UW-La Crosse) (2016) is:
“To prepare leaders in school and community health through the bridging of competency and standard-based education, scholarship, advocacy, and service-related endeavors, thereby contributing to healthier people and healthier communities.”
The process of developing this mission statement most likely involved several meetings of faculty, staff, students, community leaders, and administrators. During the meetings, the core beliefs and principles regarding health education/promotion of those in attendance were probably assessed. After coupling the list of beliefs with the required list of core competencies, the mission statement was formulated.
In drafting your own philosophy statement, you should employ a similar process (without the committee, of course). Think about what a health education specialist does and what the result of his or her work should be. Construct lists of your thoughts under headings such as (1) personal values and beliefs (see the Weblinks section for examples of ¬values), (2) what health means to you, (3) attributes of people you admire and trust, (4) results of health studies and readings that you find meaningful, and (5) outcomes you would like to see from the process of health education/promotion (e.g., better decision making, more community involvement, promotion of positive behaviors, and healthier communities). From your lists, some common themes will emerge and the identification of these themes is a key to drafting your own health education/promotion philosophy statement. Exploring why you value the topics represented within these themes should enable you to compose a philosophy statement that will reflect a way of thinking, acting, and viewing the world that works for you.
Please note, however, that using this approach to formulate a philosophy is not a guarantee that the philosophy will remain stable. As a matter of fact, there is a strong likelihood that some changes will occur because of new learnings, activities, and experiences (e.g., working in a different culture, experiencing the premature death of a child or spouse, losing a job as a result of downsizing, or encountering a new mentor). A philosophy reflects the sum of knowledge, experience, and principles from which it was formed.
As a further aid to formulating a philosophy statement about health and health education/promotion, we would like to reference a series of questions that Dr. Julie Dietz of Eastern Illinois University gives her students when they are assigned to write their personal philosophy of health education. These questions do a great job of capturing the interface between a personal philosophy of health and a professional philosophy of the profession of health education/promotion. They are
• Statement of Personal Health Philosophy
What does it mean to be healthy?
What are your health-related responsibilities and obligations to yourself?
What are your health-related responsibilities and obligations to your community or society?
What do you expect your community and society to do to keep you healthy?
• Statement of Professional Health Education and Promotion Philosophy
What is Health Education/Health Promotion, and what does it mean to be a professional in this field?
What are your goals for yourself and your profession?
What are your professional responsibilities to yourself, your community, and to your profession?
How does community health education fit within these goals? (personal communication, May 2011)
We conclude this section with a short vignette that illustrates several concepts or principles that need to be considered when formulating a philosophy statement about life, health, and health education/promotion practice.
The story, adapted from the book The Boy Who Harnessed the Wind by Kamkwamba and Mealer (2009), is about the amazing accomplishments of William Kamkwamba of the African nation of Malawi. William was curious about how things worked (particularly electricity) and had read a book titled Using Energy, which he accessed in a makeshift library in his town; so he was able to construct a functioning windmill from parts of engines and wrecked automobiles he found in a local junkyard. Most people around him said his dream of supplying his family and his community with reliable electricity for lighting homes and pumping water was “crazy.” Like many youths in Africa, William’s formal education was cut short by the inability of his family to pay the $80 annual tuition. Yet he maintained the initiative to keep on trying and learning despite his family’s suffering through famine, disease, and government graft.
Although rudimentary, the windmill he constructed worked well enough to supply power to light four small light bulbs in his home. Eventually, educators and scientists throughout Africa and beyond learned of the accomplishments of this self-taught scholar. As a result, William has been a featured lecturer at several international conferences, he has completed high school at an international school in South Africa (as a result of a grant), he graduated from Dartmouth College in 2014, and he recently received an ideo.org Global Fellowship. His refusal to abandon his dreams, fueled by his desire to make things better for his village and family, provided a stark contrast to many in his country (and around the world) who take for granted the educational opportunities they have or just give up and settle for the status quo. Given his story, William’s philosophy must include values or ideals such as perseverance, ethical conduct, a heart for helping others, and initiative.
All too often, in determining abilities, it is our experience that people set their sights and dreams too low. A personal philosophy needs to incorporate the realization that life sometimes dishes out bumps and bruises. Acknowledging this fact may well prevent any of us from excessively limiting our assessment of our place in the world. In addition, personal philosophy is often a reflection of an individual’s perspective of the world and how and why it seems to work that way.
Remember, the formation of a philosophy, whether personal or occupational, requires several steps. First, individuals need to answer the following questions in reference to themselves: What is important to me? What do I most value? What beliefs do I hold? Second, they need to identify ways the answers to the first questions influence the way they believe and act. Third, after carefully considering and writing down the answers to these questions, a philosophy statement can be formulated. The statement reflects and identifies the factors, principles, ideals, values, beliefs, and influences that help shape reality for the person authoring the philosophy statement.
The steps mentioned above can be used to formulate any type of philosophy statement. However, for those who are studying health education/promotion, there is one additional and important question to consider: Is this philosophy statement consistent with being a health education specialist? If the answer is “yes,” then for that person health education/promotion is a profession worthy of further consideration.
Predominant Health Education/Promotion Philosophies Butler (1997) accurately points out that even though there are several definitions of the phrase health education/promotion, recurring themes in many of the definitions allow for a general agreement as to its meaning. He notes, however, that the methods used to accomplish health education/promotion are less clear. The manner in which a person chooses to conduct health education/promotion can be demonstrated to be a direct reflection of that person’s philosophy of health education/promotion. With that in mind, have any predominant philosophies of health education/promotion emerged? If so, what are they? Welle, Russell, and Kittleson (1995) conducted a study to determine the philosophies favored by health education specialists. As part of the background for their study, they conducted a literature review and identified five dominant philosophies of health education/promotion that have emerged during the last 50 to 60 years. The philosophies identified were behavior change, cognitive-based, decision-making, freeing or functioning, and social change. The behavior change philosophy involves a health education specialist using behavioral contracts, goal setting, and self-monitoring to try to foster a modification in an unhealthy habit in an individual with whom he or she is working. The nature of this approach allows for the establishment of easily measurable objectives, thus enhancing the ability to evaluate outcomes. Javier from earlier in the chapter uses this approach. (Example: setting up a contract to increase the number of hours of study each week) A health education specialist who uses a cognitive-based philosophy focuses on the acquisition of content and factual information. The goal is to increase the knowledge of the individuals or groups so that they are better prepared to make decisions about their health. (Example: posting statistics about the number of people killed or injured in automobile accidents who were not wearing seat belts) In using the decision-making philosophy, a health education specialist presents simulated problems, case studies, or scenarios to students or clients. Each problem, case, or scenario requires decisions to be made in seeking a “best approach or answer.” By creating and analyzing potential solutions, the students develop skills needed to address many health-related decisions they might face. An advantage of this approach is the emphasis on critical thinking and lifelong learning. (Example: using a variety of case study examples of different popular diet programs to see competing perspectives of effectiveness) The freeing or functioning philosophy was proposed by Greenberg (1978) as a reaction to traditional approaches of health education/promotion that he felt ran the risk of blaming victims for practicing health behaviors that were often either out of their control or not seen as in their best interests. The health education specialist who uses this philosophical approach has the ultimate goal of freeing people to make the best health decisions possible based on their needs and interests—not necessarily the interests of society. Some health education specialists classify this as a subset of the decision-making philosophy discussed previously. (Example: lessons on the responsible use of alcohol) The social change philosophy emphasizes the role of health education specialists in creating social, economic, and political change that benefits the health of individuals and groups. Health education specialists espousing this philosophy are often at the forefront of the adoption of policies or laws that will enhance the health of all. (Example: no smoking allowed in restaurants, or new housing developments with pedestrian-friendly areas such as sidewalks and parks) The previously listed philosophies of health education/promotion are the products of more than 50 years of study, experimentation, and dialogue within the profession. The research conducted by Welle et al. (1995) found that the philosophy most preferred by both health education/promotion practitioners and academicians was decision-making. Both groups listed behavior change as a second choice, and both agreed that their least favorite was cognitive-based. Ratnapradipa and Abrams (2012) report that crafting a philosophy of health promotion statement may well move a health education specialist away from the use of only cognitive-based strategies (lecture) to incorporate more problem-based approaches to learning (decision-making) for their clients and communities. The fact that health education specialists who are employed in the academic setting and those who are employed as practitioners in the field agreed on these choices as predominant philosophies speaks well for the interface between preparation programs and practice. Another interesting finding from the study occurred when, as a part of the survey, the health education specialists were given health education/promotion vignettes to address or solve. In many cases, the respondents changed the philosophical approach they used depending on the setting (school, community, work site, or medical). The responding health education specialists had earlier identified a specific health education/promotion philosophy they favored (Welle et al., 1995). These results indicate that health education specialists are adaptable and resourceful, and they will use any health education/promotion approach that seems appropriate to the situation, that is, an eclectic health education/promotion philosophy. Box 3.1 Practitioner’s Perspective Philosophy of Health Education/Promotion Travis C. Leyva CURRENT POSITION/TITLE: Disease Prevention Program Manager EMPLOYER: New Mexico Department of Health DEGREE/INSTITUTION/YEAR: Bachelor in Community Health, New Mexico State University, 2004 MAJOR: Community Health MINOR: Environmental Health Describe your past and current professional positions and how you came to hold the job you now hold (How did you obtain the position?): A week prior to graduating with my Bachelor’s in Community Health, I had come across a job posting online for a Disease Prevention Specialist (DPS)—Health Educator position that caught my interest. It was a position that would conduct surveillance and field investigations for all reportable sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) in the region. I applied, interviewed, and three months later I started my journey as a health educator. After a year as a DPS, I was promoted to Regional Emergency Preparedness Specialist where I coordinated responses to public health emergencies and bioterrorism threats. After one year in that position, I was promoted as the Border Infectious Disease Surveillance (BIDS) Officer Epidemiologist, where I coordinated with Mexican health officials on Border Health Infectious Disease issues. Following two years in that position, I was promoted to Program ¬Manager of Disease Prevention, where I now supervise all the positions I was in and more! I must say that all of my promotions started with a supervisor who encouraged and motivated me to work hard and promote myself to where I am today. Describe the duties of your current position: I oversee six different program areas in my current position. They include STD and TB Surveillance and Field Investigation, Hepatitis Surveillance and Field Investigation, HIV Prevention, HIV Medical Case Management, Harm Reduction Program, and Emergency Preparedness Program. My job is to ensure that all deliverables are obtained by setting goals and objectives for our staff to follow. In separate intervals, I strategize, implement, and evaluate certain activities conducted by our staff to optimize the output of our services. An activity that I am most proud of is the creation of a small group, video-based intervention titled “iHEAL—Integrated Health Education for Addictive Lifestyles.” This intervention educates and creates risk-reduction plans for those who may be infected and/or affected by HIV, hepatitis C, STDs, or injection drug use. iHEAL is currently being presented at detention centers, state prisons, drug rehabilitation centers, probation and parole workshops, teen drug court programs, and some high schools. The intervention has now been requested to be presented throughout the state, and a DVD of the presentation is currently being made to distribute to health educators in the Disease Prevention field. Describe what you like most about this position: The best thing about my position is the staff and clients I work with on a daily basis. All the staff that I work with have a unique, nonjudgmental attitude that focuses on helping people who may be infected or affected by a disease. Usually clients who we serve are unaware of how they became infected with a disease or how they could transmit a disease to others, and after we as health educators work with them, it is quite rewarding that we have made a difference in one person’s life, sometimes even saving it. Describe what you like least about this position: There is always change in public health. Although it can be a good thing at times, sometimes change can be difficult and uncertain. Working with grant-funded programs, there are always new deliverables that need to be met and at times it means to stop the processes that are in place and create new ones, usually without any new resources. Also, there is always a change in administration, which means there may be new directives and new priorities. How do you use your philosophy of health education/promotion in your position? My philosophy among my staff is to educate and promote healthy lifestyle choices to every individual as you would like for it to be done to you. Being nonjudgmental and courteous is key to being a successful health educator. A major component to my philosophy is that we as health educators cannot direct an individual to make healthier lifestyle choices, but rather we can provide them with options for them to choose how to make healthier lifestyle choices for themselves. Those who choose to make a change or difference usually succeed and maintain those choices. What recommendations/¬advice do you have for current health education students? My advice to current health education students is to first find a niche in public health. Whether it be STDs, Children Medical Services, Family Planning, or Harm Reduction, once you find a niche, my best recommendation is to integrate all public health programs into your health education deliveries. Some of the best health educators I have seen and worked with are those who can educate on a topic and also refer to other areas that can only benefit and support the topic area they are presenting on. People recognize when a health educator is an integrated subject matter expert. In a thought-provoking essay, Buchanan (2006) introduced a different philosophical paradigm calling for health education specialists to “return to their roots” and reconsider the meaning of the word education in the practice of health education/promotion. He feels that the practice of health education/promotion buys into the medical model so often that health education specialists have lost their bearings and are now more often purveyors who almost demand that persons or the public adopt behaviors that “we know” will lead to a healthier life. Instead, he suggests that health education specialists should be “disseminators of factual information and facilitators of rational choice” (p. 301). Using this philosophy, The quality of a health educator’s work would be evaluated not by its effectiveness in changing people’s behavior but by whether their audiences find the dialogue valuable in helping them think about how they want to live their lives, the impact of their behaviors on the pursuit of their life goals, and the kinds of environmental conditions that community members find most conducive to living healthy and fulfilling lives. (p. 301) In actuality, Buchanan’s views seem to incorporate the use of the cognitive-based, the decision-making, and the freeing or functioning health education/promotion philosophies outlined previously. This is not surprising because in any list of philosophies there is always the possibility of one philosophy overlapping with another, so in practice not all is as clean as it might seem. In making a similar argument as Buchanan, Governali et al. (2005) call for an integrated behavioral ecological philosophy so that health education specialists use the multidimensional nature of the interaction of the individual and the environment. This approach also resembles the eclectic philosophical model.
Impacting the Delivery of Health Education/Promotion This section uses scenarios to help focus on the methods health education specialists might use, depending on their philosophical stance. The decision to use any philosophy involves understanding and accepting the foundation that helped create the philosophy in the first place. To this end, Welle et al. (1995) state, Health educators must remember that every single educational choice carries with it a philosophical principle or belief. Educational choices carry important philosophical assumptions about the purpose of health education, the teacher, and also the learner. Thus, health educators should take the time necessary for individual philosophical inquiry, in order to be able to clearly articulate what principles guide them professionally. . . . Different settings may produce the need for different philosophies. Every health educator should be aware of which elements of their individual philosophies they are willing to compromise. (p. 331) At the outset, it is important to remember that one of the overriding goals of any health education/promotion intervention is the betterment of health for the person or the group involved. All the philosophies have that goal. They differ, however, in how to approach that objective. Remember the case of Julieta discussed early in this chapter. Her encounter with Javier, a university-based health education specialist who used a behavior change philosophical approach, was also described earlier. We now continue this scenario with Julieta visiting the other university health education specialists. Javier has referred Julieta to Nokomis, a health education specialist who advocates for a ¬decision-making philosophy. This means that Nokomis believes in equipping her clients with problem-solving and coping skills, so that they make the best possible health choices. Initially, she might sit down with Julieta and hypothesize some situations that would necessitate Julieta thinking through the rationale behind the negative health behaviors she practices. Nokomis also would most likely try to encourage Julieta to see that some of her behaviors affect more people than just herself. The main goal is to move Julieta to a point where she admits that some of her health behaviors need to be changed and to help her identify the reasons that changing them would make her life better. In her third and final visit, Julieta visits health education specialist Li Ming, an advocate of a freeing or functioning philosophy of health education/promotion. Li Ming feels that, too often, health education specialists fail to find out the needs and desires of the client. They simply “barge in” and either overtly or covertly blame the client for any negative health behaviors. Li Ming would advocate change only if the behavior were infringing on the rights of others. In the beginning, Li Ming would confer with Julieta and find out “how her life was going.” She would ask Julieta to identify any behaviors she wanted to change, making certain that Julieta had all the information necessary to make an informed decision. Although Li Ming might believe that Julieta should stop smoking and start exercising, she would help Julieta change only those behaviors Julieta wanted to change. One caveat needs to be mentioned at this time. The fact that Julieta was required to take a personal health course in her teacher preparation program and that the instructor required a health risk assessment illustrates the social change philosophy at work at a microlevel. If health were not a state requirement (legislation) in the first place, she might not have considered changing any of her negative health behaviors. Julieta’s situation demonstrates a point made previously—in practice, there often is a natural mixing of some of the philosophies. For example, all the approaches mentioned used portions of the cognitive-based health education/promotion philosophy. To reiterate, this philosophy is based on the premise that persons need to be provided with the most current information that impacts their health behaviors, and the acquisition of that information should create a dissonance and cause change. The fifth philosophy, social change, is probably not as well suited to addressing the health behaviors of individuals. Proponents stress changes in social, economic, and political arenas to impact the health of populations. Of course, populations are made up of individuals, so changing the environment of a disadvantaged neighborhood to be healthier (e.g., creating jobs, ensuring adequate and safe housing and high-quality schools, and providing healthcare coverage for all) ultimately impacts the health of people at the individual level as well.
Summary The term philosophy means a statement summarizing the attitudes, principles, beliefs, and concepts held by an individual or a group. Forming both a personal and an occupational philosophy requires reflection and the ability to identify the factors, principles, ideals, and influences that help shape your reality. The decision to use any philosophy involves understanding and accepting the foundation that helped create the philosophy in the first place. A sound philosophical foundation serves as a guidepost for many of the major decisions in life. The five predominant philosophies of health education/promotion that were identified in the chapter are (1) behavior change, (2) cognitive-based, (3) decision-making, (4) freeing or functioning, and (5) social change. Health education specialists might disagree on which philosophy works best. They might even use an eclectic or multidimensional philosophical approach, depending on the setting or situation. However, it is important to remember that one of the overriding goals of any health education/promotion intervention is the betterment of health for the person or community involved. All the philosophies have that goal. They simply differ in how to attain it.
Heitzeg's social justice framework
Review Heitzeg's social justice framework in the Catherine Core Reader, p. 566. She presents it as a process with four key stages (Heitzeg, 2014):
Reflection on experience: this stage allows us to make connections between the larger structural reality and ourselves.
Social analysis: This stage causes us to analyze if the issue is a personal issue or a social issue. Go back to Ways of Knowing…how do you know this to be true?
Moral judgment: As Heitzeg (2014) states, “We must always take sides. Neutrality helps the oppressor”.
Action plan: Social justice issues require action.
Visit the Guardian newspaper site for The Black Lives Movement here https://www.theguardian.com/world/black-lives-matter-movement Read at least two stories about the systemic racism in Britain's legal /criminal justice system. Begin your post by summarizing and citing them using APA format. Then, reflect on how the UK and the US approach systemic racism differently within Heitzeg's social justice framework.
Social Inequality Essay
Social Inequality Essay
Your assignment is to write an argumentative essay in which you take opposition on inequality. This can be one of the specific issues from the Real World text, or you can write on a topic that affects the world today.
Your paper should follow the guidelines below:
I. Introduction- give background or perhaps an illustrative example to show the significance of the subject or the nature of the social problem. Consider stating the conclusion of your argument here as the theses of your essay.
II. Opposing argument- give a brief statement of the opposing view(s) to present that you have considered the opposing views.
III. Presentation of argument- Throughout the body of your essay you should build your case with evident and meaningful content that is creditable.
IV. Conclusion- Once your evidence has been presented and/or your position is defended, provide grounds for your position and conclusion.
Format:
Your essay should be written using ASA format to include references and citations. Your paper should be 3-4 pages and incorporate at least 2 different scholarly resources.
Lecture Notes:
7.1 Social Stratification and Social Inequality
1. Social stratification means that members of a society are categorized and divided into groups that occupy particular places in a social hierarchy. Higher-level groups will enjoy more access to the rewards and resources within that society, leaving lower-level groups with less.
2. Social inequality is the unequal distribution of wealth, power, and prestige in society. Social inequality profoundly affects individuals' life experiences.
3. Basic principles of social stratification are:
1. It is a characteristic of society rather than a reflection of individual differences.
2. It persists over generations.
3. Different societies use different criteria for ranking.
4. It is maintained through beliefs that are widely shared by members of a society.
7.2 Systems of Stratification
1. Slavery
1. The most extreme system of social stratification, slavery relegates people to the status of property, mainly for labor. Slaves have none of the rights common to free members.
2. Slavery is an economic system that is profitable to the owner at the expense of the slaves, who endure extreme subjugation.
3. Currently prohibited in every nation in the world, slavery is both illegal and immoral. Nevertheless, forms of slavery such as child slavery, serfdom, forced and bonded laborers, human trafficking, and sex slavery persist.
2. Caste System
1. A caste system is a highly stratified society where a person has little or no chance of changing his or her position within the hierarchy regardless of individual achievement. Caste is usually based on heredity.
2. South Africa's apartheid system (1948–91) was a caste system based on race and ethnicity. South Africans were classified into four main racial groups: white, black, Indian (from Asia), and colored (mixed race). Although blacks made up 60 percent of the population, they were subject to substandard treatment and access to resources. Apartheid maintained geographical and social separation of racial groups.
3. Social Class
1. System of stratification practiced primarily in capitalist societies.
2. Ranks individuals and groups using variables of wealth, education, income, power, and occupation; these factors together are commonly known as socioeconomic status (SES).
7.3 Social Class in the United States
1. The upper class makes up 1 percent of the U.S. population. This group's total net worth is greater than that of the entire remaining 90 percent. Members of this class earn in excess of $250,000 per year and are often highly educated, cultured, and influential.
2. The upper middle class makes up 14 percent of the population. Members are well educated and highly skilled, making upward of $89,000 to more than $150,000 per year.
3. The middle class makes up 30 percent of the population, though there are some indications that its proportion is shrinking. Generally, the middle class works as skilled laborers in technical and lower-management jobs, earning from $55,000 to $88,000.
4. The working class, or lower middle class, makes up 30 percent of the population. Working-class members tend to be semiskilled workers in manual labor, clerical jobs, and the service industry, and make around $23,000 to $54,000 per year.
5. The working poor make up 20 percent of the pop¬ulation, often working in lower-paid manual and service industry jobs or doing seasonal work.
6. The underclass makes up about 5 percent of the population. Its members are generally not well educated and lack valuable work skills. Because members may be seldom or unemployed, many depend on public or private assistance for an average income of less than $7,500 per year.
7. These categories are problematic due to status inconsistencies or stark contrasts in the different status levels one person can occupy. Also, because the variables used to measure SES are numerous and complex, one individual may embody many different levels of class standing.
7.4 Theories of Social Class
1. Conflict Theory—Karl Marx: Social inequality exists where capitalists have a distinct advantage over workers. Wealth becomes concentrated among a small group of the elite.
2. Weberian Theory—Max Weber: Class involves wealth, power, and prestige. Power is the ability to impose one's will on others. Prestige refers to social honor that comes from membership in certain groups. Although wealth, power and prestige are interrelated, they are separate and distinct concepts.
3. Structural Functionalism—Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore: Social stratification is a system of rewards that is unequally distributed among various roles. Higher roles are more desirable and critical for the functioning of society than lower roles. There is an assumption of meritocracy.
4. Postmodernism—Pierre Bourdieu: Class is created by social reproduction, through which it is passed from one generation to another. Cultural capital refers to the tastes, habits, and expectations that parents pass on to their children. Cultural capital can hinder or help people in their lives.
5. Symbolic Interaction—David Sudnow: Class is constructed from everyday social interactions. Sudnow argues that we make split-second judgments about who people are and which social status they occupy, and then act on these judgments. Aaron Cicourel maintains that we make inferences about the statuses of others based on the social situation in which we encounter them. Erving Goffman notes that we interpret different aspects of identity by interpreting the behavior of others, and others do the same to us. We are constantly evaluating the class statuses of others, while they are evaluating our class status. Class, then, is a performance of particular elements that make up our presentations of self.
6. There are always interactions between macro and micro interpretations of class.
7.5 Socioeconomic Status and Life Chances
1. Family: Social class has an effect on the age when people marry, the age when they have children, and how many children they have.
2. health: SES affects both overall health and access to health care. Those with more education are more likely to report being in excellent health. Those with higher SES also have a lifespan five years longer than that of people of low SES.
3. Education: Education and class status affect one another in a self-perpetuating feedback cycle. Typically, the higher a person's education level is, the higher his or her income will be. A person's class background will also affect his or her attitudes and access to education.
4. Work and Income: Social class affects a person's chances to work. Lower-class workers generally are unemployed or underemployed more often than upper- or upper-middle-class workers. Some among the extremely privileged upper class are able to live a luxurious lifestyle without having to work for income.
5. Criminal Justice: Members of lower classes are more likely to encounter the criminal-justice system than members of upper classes because people in lower classes are often more visible and less powerful, and thereby more likely to be labeled as criminals. Poor people are also more likely to be victims of violent crime than rich people.
7.6 Social Mobility
1. Social mobility refers to movement from one social class to another.
2. In a closed system, there is little opportunity for social mobility. However, the apparent opportunities in a more open system may be more perception than reality.
3. Intergenerational mobility refers to change in social class that occurs from one generation to the next. Intragenerational mobility refers to the change in social class that occurs in an individual's lifetime. Horizontal social mobility refers to the occupational movement of individuals or groups within a social class. Vertical social mobility refers to the movement between different class statuses.
4. Structural mobility occurs when large numbers of people move up or down the social ladder because of structural changes in society as a whole.
7.7 Defining Poverty
1. Relative deprivation is a comparative measure, whereas absolute deprivation measures the extent to which people are unable to meet minimum standards for food, shelter, clothing, and health care.
2. The U.S. federal poverty line is $21,954 for a family of four; $17,098 for a family of three; $13,991 for a family of two; and $10,956 for an individual. Most of the poor are working poor who work full time but are still unable to make ends meet.
3. Social welfare programs were created during the Great Depression of the 1930s. In the 1980s, welfare became stigmatized, with critics maintaining that it discouraged people from working and fostered dependence on government funds. In 1990, welfare reform limited the length of time that people remained eligible to receive welfare payments as well as setting specific requirements for how much an individual had to work while receiving welfare. Welfare is still a controversial topic, and new policy recommendations are anticipated in the future.
4. "Culture of poverty" is a term coined by Oscar Lewis, who suggested that the poor develop a way of life that included attitudes of resignation and fatalism, which causes poverty to pass on generationally. Unfortunately, the culture of poverty theory tends to support the faulty just-world hypothesis. Both the culture of poverty theory and the just-world hypothesis are criticized because they tend to blame the victims of structural inequality.
5. Poverty in the United States is often invisible even though almost 47.8 million people were living on incomes at or below the poverty line in 2009. Residential segregation, political disenfranchisement, and homelessness all contribute to the poor being unrecognized in mainstream society.
7.8 Inequality and the Ideology of the American Dream
1. The ideology of the American Dream legitimizes stratification by reinforcing the idea that everyone has the same chances to get ahead, and that long-term success and failure depends only on the individual. Within this ideology, inequality is presented as a system of incentives and rewards for achievement.
2. In reality, upward mobility in the United States depends more on race or ethnicity, gender, and class than on merit. Moreover, the consumerism promoted by the American Dream has led to more debt, less free time, and greater discontent.
3. One countercultural trend in the United States is the simplicity movement, which rejects consumerism and seeks to reverse some of its consequences for the individual, for society, and for the planet.
DESCRIBE TRADE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN TWO MAJOR ECONOMIES
The objective of the project is to DESCRIBE TRADE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN TWO MAJOR ECONOMIES
The two countries we choose are Germany and Mexico!!!!!!
What you need to do is a 10 slides PowerPoint and a 5 pages presentation script to indicate the trade relationships between Germany and Mexico. (Just between these two countries, don't write about other countries), the content HAVE TO include ALL the items below:
1.Trade relationships (blocs, bi-lateral, other)
-Existing
-Pending
-Brief description (membership/terms)
2. Imports, Exports (current/historical)
3. Trade balance (current/historical)
4. Tariffs, duties, other
-for top 5 imports, exports
5. Major trade disputes (previous 20 years)
-WTO
-Other
Important: The presentation note should be correspond with the Powerpoint. Because I need 10 slides, so there should be 10 paragraphs in the script, each slide correspond with 1 paragraph. And these 10 paragraphs should be 5 pages in length in total. (I need a speech not an essay, the presentation script should be word to word for me to read while presenting, so I don't have to think of anything else but just read.)
Friday, March 19, 2021
Acute abdominal pain- appendicitis
SOAP NOTE
Acute abdominal pain- appendicitis
The goal of this assignment is to practice writing a SOAP Note for a sick or episodic visit related to the focus system(s) reviewed in the previous week’s learning materials. Review the SOAP Note Rubric. Use a case from the previous week’s discussion or patient from your video submission or clinical practicum experience (adding content as needed to represent abnormal findings). Submit your own note. Do not submit documentation from the patient’s record.
RUBRIC
SOAP Note Rubric
[SOAP Note Rubric] – 100 PointsCriteriaExemplary
Exceeds ExpectationsAdvanced
Meets ExpectationsIntermediate
Needs ImprovementNovice
InadequateTotal Points
Subjective – 25%
Information about the patient (3 points)
Name (initials only); age, and gender
Source of information; note relationship to patient, if relevant
Reliability of information
Chief Complaint (1 point)
History of Presenting Illness (8 points)
Location
Quality
Quantity or severity
Timing (onset, duration, frequency)
Setting in which it occurs
Factors that aggravate or relieve the symptoms
Associated manifestations
Review of Focus System(s) (5 points)
Medications/Allergies (3 points)
History (5 points)
Past Medical History
Past Surgical History
Family History
Social History
Health Maintenance Practices
Patient described in appropriate detail
Concise and clear chief complaint as described by patient
HPI includes all components with appropriate detail
Comprehensive review of focus system(s) includes pertinent negatives
Name, dose, route, and frequency of prescribed and over-the-counter medications noted, including compliance;
Allergies to medications and reaction noted
Comprehensive health history is appropriate to reason for visit and includes pertinent negatives
25 pointsPatient described in appropriate detail
Concise and clear chief complaint as described by patient
HPI missing minor detail
Comprehensive review of focus system(s)
Name, dose, route, and frequency of prescribed and over-the-counter medications noted, including compliance; Allergies to medications and reaction noted
Comprehensive health history is appropriate to reason for visit
22 points1 detail missed in patient description
Chief complaint as described by patient, may not be concise or clear
HPI missing 1 component or significant detail
Review of focus system missing 1-2 components
Medication history missing 1-2 components
Health history not appropriate for reason for visit or missing 1-2 components
19 points>2 details missed in patient description
Chief complaint not identified, concise, or clear
HPI missing >2 components and significant detail
Review of focus system(s) missing >3 components
Medication history missing >3 components
Health history missing >3 components
17 points25Objective – 30%
Physical exam includes appropriate areas for Chief Complaint, History of Presenting Illness, and Review of Systems (20 points)
Appropriate techniques of examination used to identify pertinent findings (10 points)Appropriate areas and systems included in physical assessment
Comprehensive techniques of observation, palpation, percussion, and auscultation noted including special assessments as appropriate
30 points
Missing 1 expected area of assessment
Appropriate techniques of examination used but special assessment technique missed
26 points
Missing 2 expected areas of assessment
One basic technique of examination missed
23 pointsMissing >3 expected areas of assessment
>2 techniques of examination missed
20 points30Assessment – 20%
Differential diagnoses are supported by subjective and objective findings (15 points)
Scholarly resources support differential diagnoses (5 points)Three differential diagnoses are supported by findings and include worst case scenario
Rationale for differential diagnoses provided by scholarly resources
20 pointsThree differential diagnoses include worst case scenario but one diagnosis may not be fully supported by findings
Rationale for differential diagnoses provided by scholarly resources
17 pointsDifferential diagnoses may or may not include worst case scenario and 2 differential diagnoses not supported by findings
Rationale for all differential diagnoses not provided by scholarly resources
15 points<3 differential diagnoses identified, or differential diagnoses not supported by findings and do not include worst case scenario
Scholarly resources not provided or do not support differential diagnoses
13 points20Plan – 15%
Comprehensive plan to address likely differential diagnosis includes (9 points)
Diagnostic testing
Pharmacologic intervention
Non-pharmacologic intervention
Referrals
Patient education
Follow-up
Plan is supported by appropriate and current practice guidelines (6 points)Comprehensive plan includes all components
Appropriate and current guidelines cited
15 pointsPlan missing 1 of the identified components
Appropriate and current guidelines cited
13 pointsPlan missing 2 of the identified components
Guidelines are not current or appropriate for identified problem
12 pointsPlan missing >3 of the identified components
Guidelines for plan not cited
10 points15Documentation – 10%
Documentation follows SOAP template, is logical, and in correct format (10 points)Logical and systematic organization of data
Correct terminology, spelling, and grammar
Scholarly resources noted in correct APA format
10 pointsLogical and systematic organization of data
Terminology, spelling, grammar or format errors (1-3)
8 pointsMinor errors in organization of data
Terminology, spelling, grammar, or format errors (4-5)
7 pointsDisorganized flow of data
Terminology, spelling, grammar or format errors (>5)
6 points10Total Points100
